Indentured Servants in the Chesapeake Colonies Essay Example for Free

Indentured Servants in the Chesapeake Colonies Essay The life of the indentured servant was at best hazardous and full of pitfalls. There was not one sole factor that would determine the life success or failure of this class of people, but a instead it was determined be a series of random qualities and experiences. For example, as we will see with John Harrower, men who were strong and educated had a much better chance of surviving being indentured than a man who was weak in health or had no formal education. As we will see with Elizabeth Sprigs, women were treated with little or no respect, and they were generally subjugated to a hard and grueling service. Status, education, gender, and health were key factors in how lucrative the life of the indentured servant would be, but these would only come in to effect if you made it across the sea in a grueling seven to eight week journey. Life as an indentured servant was hard, but so was life in a poverty stricken Europe. Europeans from all over the continent were starving and looking for food. Family men were looking for ways to provide for their family and to escape an oppressive government that provided little in the answers for the common man and woman. The prospect of being indentured was sold to the people as a utopia to remove themselves from their present misery and hardships. Indentured servant hood had positive attributes for both the government and the common man. For the government, an overstressed system was seeing relief as thousands of people sold themselves into labor in the new colonies. For the people, the promise of a new and better life was presented to them in exchange for a couple of years of service. However, was this labor arraignment truly beneficial to the poor emigrants who indentured themselves to the ship captains for passage to America? The question is an important one, but it is one that doesn’t need to be asked if the person never actually makes it to America. Gollich Mitttelberger noted in a letter to his father the deplorable conditions that accompanied his voyage to America. Mittelberger states, â€Å"But even with the best wind the voyage lasts 7 weeks. On board there is terrible misery, stench, fumes, horror, vomiting, many kinds of sea sickness, fever, dysentery, headaches, heat, constipation, boils, scurvy, cancer, mouth-rot, and the like which comes from the spoiled food and foul water that they are forced to consume (Document 6, page 18). † Mittelberger went on to say that he missed his poverty stricken home and wished to return. He talked about how the ships were so overcrowded, that live children were thrown overboard when their mother would die. He recanted once that, â€Å"One day a women who was about to give birth and could not give birth under the circumstances, was pushed through a port hole in the ship and was dropped to the sea, because she was far in the rear of the ship and could not be brought forward (Document 6, page 19). † The letter was ended by telling his father that the horrors of the trip did not end once they arrived in America. Those who could not pay for their passage were held to be sold. They were not allowed off the ship until they had been purchased and could be escorted by the purchaser. Mittelberger noted that the sick suffered the most because they were chosen last, after the healthy ones had been purchased. Once an indentured servant arrived and had been purchased, there life rarely improved. In a letter from Elizabeth Sprigs to her father, she begs for him to forgive her and to send her clothes. She explains that her life is hard and that she is worked hard day and night. When they complain, they are whipped. She tells her father that their diet in is restricted to Indian corn and salt. Elizabeth begs her father, â€Å"We are almost naked, neither shoes nor a stocking to wear, and what rest we get is a blanket and some ground to lie upon (Document 5, page 17). † She goes on to plead for forgiveness from her father, and for him to send her some relief. This is in contrast to the story of John Harrower. John Harrower is both educated and seems to have a variety of connections. John uses his education to acquire work as a school master for a private family. His journal entries are of a more common experience of looking for work. Harrower came in search of becoming a book keeper. His journal follows him until he is offered the position as a school master, and he is encouraged to accept it because it is with a private family. His experience is very different and could go a long way in supporting the outrageous claims of George Alsop. George Alsop, in a book published in the Americas regaled would be indentured servants with tales of how wonderful their experience would be. He stated, â€Å"Now those that commit themselves to the care of the Merchant to carry them over, they need not trouble themselves with any inquisitive search touching their voyage; for there is such honest care and provision made†¦ (Document 6, page 6). This is a drastic different statement than Mittelberger made about the horrible conditions caused by overcrowding and the consumption of rotten food and foul water. Alsop goes on to say, â€Å"The women that go over into this Province as Servants, have the best luck here as in any place of the world; for they are no sooner on shore, but they are courted into a Copulative Matrimony, for some of them†¦ (Document 6, page 7). † This again contrasts greatly with Mittelberger who wrote about the women who were being thrown overboard because they were having complications with child birth. This also contrasts with Elizabeth Sprigs who wrote about being whipped for complaining, and given nothing to eat but Indian corn and salt. Alsop was obviously using false claims to help ensure that the cheap labor would flow steadily into the American Colonies. In July of 1640, there is an account of some indentured servants that are caught trying plot their escape. The courts decided that this was dangerous grounds, the men were whipped severely, and had the letter R burned into the side of their face. They suffered other abuses before being given back to the master (Document 8, page 23). † The life of the indentured servant was hard, and did little good to better the life the people involved. The conditions in which many were forced to work in were sub-human, and they were generally treated no better than animals. While there were no doubt a select few that profited from this, on the average this labor arrangement did not benefit the poor emigrants who came over from Europe looking for a better life.

A Clockwork Orange Essay: New Testament for American Youth?

A Clockwork Orange – New Testament for American Youth? In Anthony Burgess’s A Clockwork Orange, he observes a characteristic of youth that has been documented from the story of Icaris to the movie Rebel without a Cause. Through his ingenious method of examination of this characteristic, the sci-fi novel, he has created an aspect of what he chose to observe: Rebellion. Our hero, Alex, begins the novel by explaining his mischeviouse exploits in a manner not far from nostalgia, that is tainted with a bit of sarcasm for any bleeding-heart pity one might feel for his victims, as when he recalls his own realization of the importance of the term, "A Clockwork Orange." Alex says of the author and his wife that he "would like to have tolchocked them harder and ripped them to ribbons on their own floor. (CO 38)" By the juxtaposition of the intelligent rational used in the contemplation of this concept with the complete lack of respect for it, Burgess shows Alex’s attitude as one of childish ignorance coupled with testosterone induced negative energy. An attitude not absent from any boys upbringing. As Alex is growing through that difficult age known as adolescence, he is taking part in what we have called depaternalisation, throwing off the constraints of the previous generation. This is accomplished through random acts of violence, of course, but al so through Alex’s existence within a subculture, which by definition is separate from and therefor contrasts with the mainstream culture. Alex’s subculture is one of youth, and it is defined by its style of dress and its slang. Alex’s style of dress, described twice to us, once with his first gang and once with his second, is intentionally outrageous by our standards, with "a pair of blac... ...t need to become good to maintain the theme of free will, although it must be much more reassuring to any of the elderly who read the book. My argument is that the book is suppose to be in opposition to the elderly, just like Alex is, and just like the audience is (i.e. American Youth). Through its rebelliousness achieved by the omission of the last chapter, A Clockwork Orange has become a manifesto for rebellion, an aspect of the culture it was written to observe. Today, Madonna dresses as Alex did in Kubrick’s film, choreographing dance routines that look like scenes of rape and ultra-violence from the movie. When walking down the streets of campus, where bohemian lifestyles are embraced, the words "in-out, in-out" and "ultra-violence" are met with cheers of recognition and admiration. Has A Clockwork Orange become the â€Å"New Testament† for American youth? A Clockwork Orange Essay: New Testament for American Youth? A Clockwork Orange – New Testament for American Youth? In Anthony Burgess’s A Clockwork Orange, he observes a characteristic of youth that has been documented from the story of Icaris to the movie Rebel without a Cause. Through his ingenious method of examination of this characteristic, the sci-fi novel, he has created an aspect of what he chose to observe: Rebellion. Our hero, Alex, begins the novel by explaining his mischeviouse exploits in a manner not far from nostalgia, that is tainted with a bit of sarcasm for any bleeding-heart pity one might feel for his victims, as when he recalls his own realization of the importance of the term, "A Clockwork Orange." Alex says of the author and his wife that he "would like to have tolchocked them harder and ripped them to ribbons on their own floor. (CO 38)" By the juxtaposition of the intelligent rational used in the contemplation of this concept with the complete lack of respect for it, Burgess shows Alex’s attitude as one of childish ignorance coupled with testosterone induced negative energy. An attitude not absent from any boys upbringing. As Alex is growing through that difficult age known as adolescence, he is taking part in what we have called depaternalisation, throwing off the constraints of the previous generation. This is accomplished through random acts of violence, of course, but al so through Alex’s existence within a subculture, which by definition is separate from and therefor contrasts with the mainstream culture. Alex’s subculture is one of youth, and it is defined by its style of dress and its slang. Alex’s style of dress, described twice to us, once with his first gang and once with his second, is intentionally outrageous by our standards, with "a pair of blac... ...t need to become good to maintain the theme of free will, although it must be much more reassuring to any of the elderly who read the book. My argument is that the book is suppose to be in opposition to the elderly, just like Alex is, and just like the audience is (i.e. American Youth). Through its rebelliousness achieved by the omission of the last chapter, A Clockwork Orange has become a manifesto for rebellion, an aspect of the culture it was written to observe. Today, Madonna dresses as Alex did in Kubrick’s film, choreographing dance routines that look like scenes of rape and ultra-violence from the movie. When walking down the streets of campus, where bohemian lifestyles are embraced, the words "in-out, in-out" and "ultra-violence" are met with cheers of recognition and admiration. Has A Clockwork Orange become the â€Å"New Testament† for American youth?

Perceptual Map Marketing Essay

The purpose of this document is to illustrate the information contained within the Perceptual Map Marketing simulation and relate to it’s information as practical and important. Contained in the simulation were three phases, each of significant importance. We will include in this document the situation, the recommended solutions and the results. We will discuss the multiple marketing aspects that were revealed within the simulation and we will attempt to create satisfactory responses to the various questions which arise out of the relationships between differentiation and positioning of products or services and what the impact of the product life cycle on marketing is. It is the hope that after reading this document there will be a clear concept of what the results of this simulation were and how they are applicable to the paper’s mission. All good things have a story and Cruiser Thorr was no exception. We learned about the meaning behind the bike. The simulation showed how to create and use a perceptual map using the bike as a primary example. When using the Perceptual Map it then became clearly more evident which direction the marketing goals should take to carry on it’s back the heart and soul of the Morotcycle brand. In selling thousands of motorcycles a year the Thorr Motocycle company has created a client base capable of supporting their imense variety of choice that is given to the consumer. Everything from the type of engine to how many people can ride the bike. They sell accessories such as protective gear, clothing and even little models for children. The services they offer to their customers are that you would expect from a first rate bike shop. Our task is to set up a positioning strategy, a perceptual map and create the parameters that will become vital to the product as it will be the customers only information before making a major purchase. For decades now the industry of motorized bikes have been on the ries. Even with this evident truth backed by consumer research the top selling item that Thorr Motorcycles is creating seems to be dwindeling. The logical conclusion that we are coming to to is that their target customers are in the decades of their 30s till almost 60s and through the proccess of life seem to have lost interests in what Thorr stands for. No longer are these men rebels or out to â€Å"be wild† as Steppenwolf would say. Any consumers who are younger are simply not capable of affording the high price tag associated with a Thorr bike which ranges in the high 20 to low 30 thousand dollar range. Younger riders are more apt to buy less expensive, quicker riding bikes that are the exact opposite of the image that Thorr stands for. We are going to solidify Cruiser thorr’s postion in the market by creating it’s Perceptual map. There are four basic parameters that are relevant to the entire scheme of biking industry which reflect the highest chances for Cruiser Thorr’s survival. These are the four parameters: lifestyle image, product design and styling, service offerings, and price. The selection of lifestyle image is almost a no brainer as it is the backbone of the Cruiser Thorr’s previous success. The entire bike’s thriving record is built upon a reputation that having their bike is a status symbol. The same reason that people buy Starbucks instead of simply brewing their own coffee at home. Unlike other industries, transportation specfically speaks to the identity of the person who has the item. They will spend much of their time utilizing their vehicle. In no vehicle type is this more relevant than in bikes where people will see the bike and there will be no windows, walls, or doors hiding the rider from the world. Everyone will see who the rder is and that is why Product Design nd Styling are so vital to it’s success. The bike and the rider are one. Man and machine moving along the pavement together. The service offerings are probably the most second important aspect to a vehicle other than the price. Maintanence and such can get very expensive very quickly. Assuring that you are taking care of you customers and looking out for their well being is primary in the grand scheme of all things. At the end of the thought of course is always the most important aspect. Cost and price. The price is affected by many, many things. Among these things is engineering, construction, materials, labor, transport of the bike itself. The whole purpose for this bike’s creation is ot make money. To make money you must have a clear marketing plan. Due to this obvious fact we have restructured Cruiser Thorr and decided to not create a new bike. It is imperative to keep the Cruiser Thorr in production if Thorr is going to keep making motorcycles. It is the bike that has built their empire. It would be as if Levi’s stopped selling 501 Jeans. We instead create a financing option that gives the consumers with less money an opportunity to own a Cruiser Thorr. With increased service options will be able to make rational sense of the high price that we will be able to keep at the same price. For advertising it would probably be a good idea to put some endorsements in race tracks, hook up with a popular drink brand like MONSTER and maybe make a â€Å"Monster Bike† that can ride around. We can also take a page out of the GM book and put our bikes into movies and on television for product placement. The current straegy is based on price, product, location, current pomotions and services offered. With the goal of repositioning the product in an attempt to remove the competions hold on the market because we will move the parameters into concurrent thought forms and proccesses making us and our strategies the same as the competition. We know that there are four key factors that are represented by stages in a products life cycle that are important for the marketing officer to know and understand. The four stages: introduction, growth, maturity and decline. Once a product reaches the stage of it’s full maturity it is time to revisit it with the hope of making improvements. If this is not done the product will very quickly enter the declining stages of it’s life cycle. This is the reason that Cruiser Thorr started to drop it’s sales figure. Their product had reached it’s maturity. Their current customers were old and any knew ones had no idea what Cruiser Thorr, the brand, stood for. For this reason we had to reinven and improve their bikes. It was necessary to compete. It is the hope that we have together reached and addressed the various key points necessary to form a graps of the information that was provided. We have described the three major phases in the simulation. The situation and the recommended solutions have been addressed along with what our results were. We have talked about the different marketing aspects and answered the different question sthat were arisen between the relationships of differentiation and positioning for each of the products and services and it’s impact. It was the desire of I to create a solid understanding of the purpose and use of Perceptual Maps in Marketing. References All information was taken from the Perceptual Map Marketing Simulation provided on the University of Phoenix website.

The Negative Impacts of the Harlem Renaissance Essay

The 1920’s were a period or rapid growth and change in America. After World War I American’s were introduced to a lifestyle of lavishness they had never encountered before. It was a period of radical thought and ideas. It was in this time period that the idea of the Harlem Renaissance was born. The ideology behind the Harlem Renaissance was to create the image of the â€Å"New Negro†. The image of African-American’s changed from rural, uneducated â€Å"peasants† to urban, sophisticated, cosmopolites. Literature and poetry abounded. Jazz music and the clubs where it was performed at became social â€Å"hotspots†. Harlem was the epitome of the â€Å"New Negro†. However, things weren’t as sunny as they appeared. Many felt that the Harlem Renaissance itself†¦show more content†¦What seemed to be at first a good idea was a subtle form of racism and stereotyping. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Racism was not eliminated during the Harlem Renaissance. In fact, it was more prevalent then ever. The Ku Klux Klan included a membership of more then 4.5 million members by the mid 1920’s. In 1924 they passed out membership cards stating, â€Å"When aliens run the United Stated States†¦then the Ku Klux Klan won’t be worth a damn.† (Document C) The KKK fed on the fear created by the Harlem Renaissance. Many Whites weren’t used to the idea of Blacks having an influence, and they panicked. Organizations like the KKK utilized this fear to increase their membership to staggering proportions. They continued to torment the African-Americans, and continued the practice of racial bigotry. In 1922, Congress passed an Anti-Lynching Bill stating that, â€Å"depriving any person of his life without authority of law† was a criminal offense. (Document A) However, lynching and burnings still took place. Before the end of 1929 the KKK had lynched more then 200 African-Americans. Congress was ill equipped to enforce this bill, and it had little effect in the areas that needed it most. The KKK believed in White Supremacy and that their problems were caused by Blacks. They continued to discriminate and instill a sense of fear in these people. The use of chain gangs as a form of punishment was still in widespreadShow MoreRelatedThe Negative Impacts of the Harlem Renaissance1169 Words   |  5 Pagesthe idea of the Harlem Renaissance was born. The ideology behind the Harlem Renaissance was to create the image of the New Negro. The image of African-Americans changed from rural, uneducated peasants to urban, sophisticated, cosmopolites. Literature and poetry abounded. Jazz music and the clubs where it was performed at became social hotspots. Harlem was the epitome of the New Negro. However, things werent as sunny as they appeared. Many felt that the Harlem Renaissance itself wasnt soRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance : A Literary, Artistic, Cultural And Intellectual Movement1485 Words   |  6 PagesTatiana Moore Mrs. Donald English III 26 March 2014 The Harlem Renaissance The Harlem Renaissance was a literary, artistic, cultural and intellectual movement. The word renaissance means rebirth or revival. African Americans during this time were being pressured by Jim Crow Laws in the South. These laws separated the races tremendously (Roses). African Americans appeared ignorant, poor, and servile. Hate groups and hate crimes alarmed families, and they collectively decided it was time to make aRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance850 Words   |  4 Pages Giselle Villanueva History IB Mr. Flores February 7, 2016 Period 4 Word Count: 693 Harlem Renaissance The Harlem Renaissance was the first period in the history of the United States in which a group of black poets, authors, and essayist seized the opportunity to express themselves. The Great Migration was the movement of six million African Americans from the rural South to the cities of the North during 1916 to 1970. Driven from their homes by unsatisfactory economic opportunities and harsh segregationistRead MoreExploring African American History : The Harlem Renaissance1521 Words   |  7 PagesTi’Anna Smith Period 1 AP World History 12-14-15 Exploring African American History: The Harlem Renaissance The Harlem Renaissance originally known as the New Negro Movement was an important part of African American culture and history, which helped African Americans express themselves and celebrate their heritage. Between the years of 1890-1920 close to two million African Americans traveled from the rural southern states to the northern cities. They traveled to these northern cities in hopesRead MoreHarlem Renaissance Essay1341 Words   |  6 Pagesduring the Renaissance was they had really short life there was no black people in it other than artists. Harlem Renaissance were first one to criticize black and white. They came to dominate Harlem Renaissance through creativity and culture. Madhubuti’s contention, Jeffery Stewart stated after major victories of the civil rights movement another intellectual and cultural rebellion called Black Power movement. Madhubuti’s, a black arts movement members relationship with Harlem Renaissance is one ofRead MoreThe Harlem Renaissance Is Embraced As One Of The Most Influential1412 Words   |  6 PagesThe Harlem Renaissance is embraced as one of the most influential artistic movements within African American culture. This period embraced black art, poetry, fiction, drama, and visual art. Visual art was vital to the movement, as many artists sought for representation of black individuals as the art realm was grossly dominated by white artists, who gave very little thought or recognition towards black subject matter. The visual art renaissance featured Aaron Douglas, Palmer C. Hayden, ArchibaldRead MoreTableau Analytical Essay . 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Many groups that were not expected before started to stand up for themselves to get equal rights. â€Å" Many Blacks began to take pride in their ethnicity and great outpouring of art, literature, and musicRead MoreSimilarities and Differences Between Yet Do I Marvel and If We Must Die1441 Words   |  6 PagesRyan Cirillo 6 March 2013 Dr. Dalessio Eng 1011 Similarities and Differences between â€Å"Yet Do I Marvel† and â€Å"If We Must Die† During the Harlem Renaissance, many African Americans struggled through a shifting period in time from slavery to equality. Some African Americans expressed their feelings at that time through poetry such as â€Å"Yet Do I Marvel† written by Countee Cullen and â€Å"If We Must Die† by Claude McKay. In â€Å"Yet Do I Marvel† Cullen writes about how the struggles he is facing relateRead More The History of Harlem - Cultural Epicenter of America’s Black community2254 Words   |  10 Pagesof which being the negatives stigmas that unfairly generalize their people, culture and way of life. Therese stereotypes of a whole nationality label Blacks as, â€Å"superstitious, lazy, ignorant, dirty, unreliable, (and even) criminal,† (â€Å"Stereotypes†). Such generalizations are products of the public’s perception, which has been diluted by rooted historic and current prejudice as well as the media’s conveyance of a well-known African Ame rican cultural center: Harlem. Despite negative connotations associated

Biographical Data Of Theorist Interpersonal, Cognitive,...

1. Biographical data of theorist: Interpersonal therapy synthesizes interpersonal, cognitive, and family perspectives. Interpersonal therapy was first given attention by Harry Stack Sullivan. Sullivan’s theory was created in reaction to Freud’s drive theory. Sullivan contended that what a child was currently experiencing interpersonally and behaviorally was more important than unconscious drives. Sullivan earned his MD and became interested in psychology after working and helping a schizophrenic patient. 2. Personality: Personality is result of the interaction between biological predispositions (genetics), social factors (intimate relationships and social support), and psychological factors (attachment styles, temperament, cognitive style). Of importance, is an individual’s early attachment styles and family relations. IPT recognizes the subjective worldview of individual’s, and the ways this influences how an individual interacts with the world. All of these factors interact to form an individual’s interpersonal style. Human nature: Humans have a need to be loved and cared for, this can be seen in a child’s attachment style to parents and in adulthood. Humans have an intrinsic drive to form relationships. Biological/social influence: IPT utilizes a biopsychosocial model of psychological functioning. Biological predispositions and social factors interact throughout life. The desire to form relationships is innate to all humans. 2. Definition of psychopathology:Show MoreRelatedMoral Development During Adolescence Essay8689 Words   |  35 Pagesrelationship with adolescent, and ethical and moral values. A mixed-model method (both quantitative and qualitative) was used to conduct the study. Participants were sampled through convenience sampling. The sample of a total of 1387 from the pooled data was used for the quantitative part of the research. While for the qualitative study a sample of 20 adolescents (10 boys and 10 girls) who were high-school students (in grade 10 and 11) from 12 to 18 years of age from Gebeni High School in SwazilandRead MoreEmotional Intelligence15079 Words   |  61 Pagesachievement. 7 LITERATURE REVIEW 7.1 Definition of Emotional Intelligence In spite of the fact that the study of emotional intelligence is relatively novel, definitions and theorists seeking to explain the concept of emotional intelligence are many. Gardener (1983) described two types of intelligences which he named interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences and they are closely related to what later became known as emotional intelligence. Mayer and Salovey (1993) a decade later protected emotionalRead MoreApplication of Maslows Hierachy in Needs6339 Words   |  26 PagesIs Maslows Hierarchy of Needs a Valid Model of Motivation? by Melanie Colvin Fangfang Rutland May 8th, 2008 Table of Contents I. Executive summary II. Introduction III. Maslow and Maslows theory a. Biographical sketch b. Basic structure of Maslows hierarchy of needs theory c. Inspiration for â€Å"Hierarchy of Needs† theory IV. Application of Maslows theory a. Maslows theory in business 1. Workplace management 2. Marketing b. MaslowsRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagestheir products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robbins, Stephen P. Organizational behavior / Stephen P. Robbins, Timothy A. Judge. — 15th ed. p. cm. Includes indexes. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-283487-2 ISBN-10: 0-13-283487-1 1. Organizational behavior. I. Judge, Tim. II. Title. HD58.7.R62 2012 658.3—dc23Read MoreOverview of Hrm93778 Words   |  376 Pageswork schedules, parental leave, child-care and elder-care assistance, and job sharing. The human resource department plays a central role in establishing and implementing policies designed to reduce the friction between organizational demands and family responsibilities. b. Increased complexity of the Manager’s job Management has become an increasingly complex and demanding job for many reasons, including foreign competition, new technology, expanding scientific information, and rapid change. ThereforeRead MoreStrategic Human Resource Management View.Pdf Uploaded Successfully133347 Words   |  534 Pages0– 536–72690–6 BA 996748 PEARSON CUSTOM PUBLISHING 75 Arlington Street, Suite 300 Boston, MA 02116 A Pearson Education Company iii iv Table of Contents SECTION ONE ................................................................. 1 An Investment Perspective and Human Resources .... 2 HUMAN RESOURCE INVESTMENT CONSIDERATIONS ...6 INVESTMENTS IN TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ..... 14 INVESTMENT PRACTICES FOR IMPROVED RETENTION ............................................................ 32 INVESTMENTS INRead MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 Pages vi Contents Top Management Commitment 43 Effective Upward Communication 43 Determining What to Communicate 44 Allowing for Feedback 44 Information Sources 44 The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 62 The Civil Rights Act of 1991 63 The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 63 Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act of 1994 64 Relevant Executive Orders 64 vii WORKPLACE ISSUES: HRM Certification 44 Is a Career in HRM for Me? 45 ETHICAL ISSUES IN HRM: Purposely Distorting

Leadership Theories And The Identification Of A Personal...

Lisa Deaver Leadership Theories and the Identification of a Personal Leadership Approach EDLD 5311 Abstract This formulation of a leadership approach is the result of weeks of study. This includes a compilation of, and refection upon, data collected from several assessments. From this data, a leadership profile emerged, leading to a plan for growth. A foundation for the development of a leadership approach is growing through a study of the history and philosophy of leadership, including various motivational theories. Through interviewing two respected leaders, viewing videos of successful leaders, and conducting further research on leadership, my views on leadership have become much more defined; and through reflection, both†¦show more content†¦The one place that I tend to deviate from the â€Å"textbook Guardian† is in regards to the Guardian not wanting to â€Å"wing it or blaze new trails.† I am comfortable with both of those situations, and I like to look for better ways to accomplish tasks more efficiently and use time and resources most effectively. When I loo k back on my original philosophy of leadership, it is an obvious result of the Guardian Temperament. In researching various motivation beliefs, I identify most with three of the theories set forth in the text, School Leader Internship: Developing, Monitoring, and Evaluating Your Leadership Experience. First, Bandura’s Social Cognition Theory is one I identified as having regularly used both in the classroom and on the court. One must believe something is possible before that individual will achieve the goal. According to Bandura’s theory, an individual has to believe that an action is possible and that he or she can be successful and accomplish the goal. Additionally, a person must be able to set goals, to develop a plan to reach the goals, to commit to implementing the plan, and to reflect on and adjust the plan as needed. The more someone believes they will be successful, and the better able they are to set their goals and follow their plans, the more motivated they will be (Martin, Danzig, Wright, Flanary Brown, 2012, p. 90). The biggest hurdle to clear when entering a situation where a student or athlete has

Cultural Democracy Free Essays

string(135) " the freedom of speech, then there will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others’ freedom of expression\." Cultural democracy – Summary This is the summary of the conference or debate between the two speakers Mr. Jerry Sambuaga and Mr. Lee Nathanael Santoso, discussing the topic of Cultural Democracy. We will write a custom essay sample on Cultural Democracy or any similar topic only for you Order Now The first topic that is discussed was on the ideal form of democracy. Mr. Jerry said that the ideal form of democracy is the one that prioritize freedom, to have liberalism implemented, which will eventually lead to individualism. In his opinion liberalism should be implemented in all aspects, such as in politics and economy. The examples of liberalism in politics are presidential election or parties, whereas the example of liberalism in economy is human rights. The freedom of speech, freedom to express opinions, since 1998, is the key to liberalism (direct democracy). On the other hand, when discussing the topic on the ideal form of democracy, Mr. Nathanael raises up the question â€Å"Whether democracy is universal or locally? † as his comeback. People now have human rights, the right to choose what they think democracy is. He said that in Singapore the government plays a larger role compared than the role of freedom of speech (representative democracy). Mr. jerry said that democracy is invented in the west, and the democracy in Indonesia is still very fragile, there are aspects that have not yet been touched such as civil society, law enforcement, etc. There is a statement that Mr. Jerry gave that Mr. Nathanael also agrees on, and that is â€Å"Democracy is not a destination but a goal†. Mr. Nathanael added that democracy indeed is a mean or a goal, and the goal is not democracy but to make sure that every people have basic necessities (security, etc). Mr. Nathanael asked a rhetorical question, † which political system that can guarantee their country to be flexible enough to attain political grid lock? † From his point of view, Singapore is the closest one that has been able to achieve this. The second topic that the moderator discussed was, â€Å"Should a country this big (Indonesia) use a federal system or a unitary system? † Mr. Nathanael said that our country should adopt a mix of the two systems. From Mr. jerry’s point of view, Indonesia should use a federal system, because Indonesia is very diverse, if we force something it can cause damages. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerry’s statement by saying that Singapore also has diversity, but they know how to harmonized the different point of views, opinions, etc. He said, â€Å"Minorities and other ethnicity receive the right to take part, to give a voice. † Mr. Jerry debated Mr. Nathanael’s statement by saying that Singapore has an oppressive or an authoritarian system, instead of having a freedom of speech. â€Å"Singapore has a good system but can it last with that system? Indonesia may not yet be successful now, but with the existence of liberty, and opportunity given for people to be able to govern, may lead Indonesia to become a developed country. Mr. Nathanael debated Mr. Jerry’s statement saying, â€Å"The authoritarian system in Singapore is different compared to China, in Singapore the law is clear, you can have a say on criticizing the government, but you must have facts to support it. Mr. Jerry’s opinion is that our country is best suited with having a litt le number parties, because a large number of parties slows down decision making, and does nut suit the presidential system. While Mr. Nathanael said that democracy is not about political parties, part of government,  it is about achieving national interests. He said that, â€Å"only the parties with money that can win (in indo), but in Singapore if you have a good vision you will be heard†. â€Å"Should democracy control freedom? † Mr. Jerry said that one’s freedom of expression could violate another’s freedom of expression. Freedom should be controlled but not limited. Democracy may not be the best system, but it is still better to educate the people to participate. He added, â€Å"Freedom of rights of Singapore must be developed. † Mr. Nathanael commented, â€Å"Singapore are convinced that this is the system for them, the issue is Singapore’s system should be more relevant. Singapore’s human rights can’t be compared with Indonesia’s priority of economic prosperity. Cultural Democracy Critical Analysis Cultural Democracy is the term for a philosophy or policy emphasizing pluralism, participation, and equity within and between cultures. Which consists of a set of related co mmitments such as, protecting and promoting cultural diversity, and the right to culture for everyone in our society and around the world;? encouraging active participation in community cultural life;? enabling people to participate in policy decisions that affect the quality of our cultural lives; and ? ssuring fair and equitable access to cultural resources and support. There are three basic types of democracy: Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented, and Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule’ wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. In my opinion, I think the ideal form of democracy should be the one where liberalism is highly considered, but where there is also a balance in government involvement. Because, as the people, we know what our country needs most, but with the diversity that our country possess, and with the different opinions that people have, there should be a representative democracy that can represent the people and chooses the best decisions for the people and the country. Should democracy control freedom? I think that freedom is both a positive and a negative think, if not controlled properly. People have different opinions, and if all of them have the freedom of speech, then there will be a moment where their freedom of expression will clash with others’ freedom of expression. You read "Cultural Democracy" in category "Essay examples" That is why that freedom should also be controlled to a point of degree where people would still have the freedom of speech. The main reason why Indonesia has not been able to reach its full potential is because we have weak institutions, hence weak democracy. Indonesia should learn the complexity that is democracy, the many aspects that is consists of such as  legal certainty, transparency, freedom, etc. The one thing that Indonesia should be able to do to improve as a country is by knowing how to prioritize. Of course, in democracy alone there are many aspects that it consists of, and to manage this by knowing which to prioritize first, to the extent where all the aspects will be covered one by one. Indonesia should be consistent in following or running a liberal system. Of course, there are processes that need to be done; we need to fight for the freedom of the economy. The best solution is to have a modification based on the aspiration of the people. We should be able to learn, and adopt all the good elements that each country possesses, mix them up and implement them as our democratic system. By: Pamela Lemmuela (04320120057) FISIP/HI/2012 RESEARCH : ? Democracy? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A woman casts her vote in the second round of the French presidential election of 2007 Part of the Politics series| Democracy| History  Ã‚ · Outline| Basic forms| * Direct * Representative| Variants| * Anticipatory * Consensus * Deliberative * Demarchy * Economic * Electronic * Grassroots * Illiberal * Inclusive * Liberal * Non-partisan * Ochlocracy * Participatory * Radical * Religious * Representative direct * Sociocracy * Soviet * Totalitarian * Other| Politics portal| * v t e| Part of the Politics series| Basic forms ofgovernment| Power structure| * Confederal * Federal * Hegemony * Imperial * Unitary| Power source| Democracy * Direct * Representative * Other * Monarchy * Absolute * Constitutional * Oligarchy * Aristocracy * Meritocracy * Military junta * Plutocracy * Stratocracy * Technocracy * Timocracy * Other * Anarchy * Authoritarianism * Autocracy * Anocracy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Kritarchy * Republic * Theocracy * Totalitarianism| List of forms of government| Politics portal| * v t e| Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Democracy allows people to participate equally—either directly or through elected representatives—in the proposal, development, and creation of laws. It encompasses social, economic and cultural conditions that enable the free and equal practice of political self-determination. The term originates from the Greek (demokratia) â€Å"rule of the people†,[1] which was coined from demos) â€Å"people† and (kratos) â€Å"power† in the 5th century BCE to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens; the term is an antonym to â€Å"rule of an elite†. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French and Middle Latin equivalents. A democratic government contrasts to forms of government where power is either held by one, as in a monarchy, or where power is held by a sm all number of individuals, as in an oligarchy or aristocracy. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. [2] Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of citizens executes its will. One form of emocracy is direct democracy, in which citizens have direct and active participation in the decision making of the government. In most modern democracies, the whole body of citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called representative democracy. The concept of representative democracy arose largely from ideas and institutions that developed during the European Middle Ages, the Age of Enlig htenment, and the American and French Revolutions. [3] Contents   [hide]   * 1 Definition * 2 History * 2. Ancient origins * 2. 2 Middle Ages * 2. 3 Modern era * 3 Countries * 4 Types * 4. 1 Basic forms * 4. 2 Variants * 4. 3 Non-governmental * 5 Theory * 5. 1 Aristotle * 5. 2 Rationale * 5. 3 Ideal forms * 5. 4 Practice * 5. 5 Criticism * 6 Development * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 External links| [edit] Definition While there is no universally accepted definition of â€Å"democracy,†[4] equality and freedom have both been identified as important characteristics of democracy since ancient times. 5] These principles are reflected in all citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are genera lly protected by a constitution. [6][7] One theory holds that democracy requires three fundamental principles: 1) upward control, i. e. overeignty residing at the lowest levels of authority, 2) political equality, and 3) social norms by which individuals and institutions only consider acceptable acts that reflect the first two principles of upward control and political equality. [8] The term â€Å"democracy† is sometimes used as shorthand for liberal democracy, which is a variant of representative democracy that may include elements such as political pluralism; equality before the law; the right to petition elected officials for redress of grievances; due process; civil liberties; human rights; and lements of civil society outside the government. [citation needed] In the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute, but in other countries, such as the United Kingdom, the dominant principle is that of parliamentary sovereignty (while maintaining ju dicial independence). [citation needed] In other cases, â€Å"democracy† is used to mean direct democracy. Though the term â€Å"democracy† is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organizations. Majority rule is often listed as a characteristic of democracy. by whom? ] Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the â€Å"tyranny of the majority† in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of an â€Å"ideal† representative democracy is competitive elections that are fair both substantively[9] and procedurally. [10] Furthermore, freedom of political expression, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press are considered to be essential rights that allow citizens to be adequately informed and able to vote according to their own interests. 11][12] It has also been suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of individua ls to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. [13] With its emphasis on notions of social contract and the collective will of the people, democracy can also be characterized as a form of political collectivism because it is defined as a form of government in which all eligible citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. [14] While democracy is often equated with the republican form of government, the term â€Å"republic† classically has encompassed both democracies and aristocracies. 15][16] [edit] History Main article: History of democracy [edit] Ancient origins See also: Athenian democracy Cleisthenes, â€Å"father of Athenian democracy†, modern bust. The term â€Å"democracy† first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens. [17][18] Led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508-507 BCE. Cleisthenes is referred to as â₠¬Å"the father of Athenian democracy. [19] Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy, and it had two distinguishing features: the random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices,[20] and a legislative assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. [21] All citizens were eligible to speak and vote in the assembly, which set the laws of the city state. However, Athenian citizenship excluded women, slaves, foreigners ( metoikoi), and males under 20 years old. [citation needed] Of the estimated 200,000 to 400,000 inhabitants of Athens, there were between 30,000 and 60,000 citizens. citation needed] The exclusion of large parts of the population from the citizen body is closely related to the ancient understanding of citizenship. In most of antiquity the benefit of citizenship was tied to the obligation to fight war campaigns. [citation needed] Athenian democracy was not only direct in the sense that decisions were made by the assembled people, but also directest in the sense that the people through the assembly, boule and courts of law controlled the entire political process and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in the public business. 22] Even though the rights of the individual were not secured by the Athenian constitution in the modern sense (the ancient Greeks had no word for â€Å"rights†[23]), the Athenians enjoyed their liberties not in opposition to the government but by living in a city that was not subject to another power and by not being subjects themselves to the rule of another person. [24] Even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to certain aspects of democracy, only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives. The votes of the powerful were given more weight through a system of gerrymandering, so most high officials, including members of the Senate, came from a few wealthy and noble families. [25] However, many notable exceptions did occur. [citation needed] [edit] Middle Ages During the Middle Ages, there were various systems involving elections or assemblies, although often only involving a small amount of the population, the election of Gopala in Bengal region of Indian Subcontinent (within a aste system), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (10% of population), the Althing in Iceland, the Logting in the Faeroe Islands, certain medieval Italian city-states such as Venice, the tuatha system in early medieval Ireland, the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia, Scandinavian Things, The States in Tirol and Switzerland and the autonomous merchant city of Sakai in the 16th century in Japan. However, participation was often restricted to a minority, and so may be better class ified as oligarchy. Most regions in medieval Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords. The Kouroukan Fouga divided the Mali Empire into ruling clans (lineages) that were represented at a great assembly called the Gbara. However, the charter made Mali more similar to a constitutional monarchy than a democratic republic. A little closer to modern democracy were the Cossack republics of Ukraine in the 16th–17th centuries: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporizhian Sich. The highest post – the Hetman – was elected by the representatives from the country’s districts. Magna Carta, 1215, England The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into Magna Carta, which explicitly protected certain rights of the King’s subjects, whether free or fettered – and implicitly supported what became English writ of habeas corpus, safeguarding individual freedom against unlawful imprisonment with right to appeal. The first elected parliament was De Montfort’s Parliament in England in 1265. However only a small minority actually had a voice; Parliament was elected by only a few percent of the population, (less than 3% as late as 1780[26]), and the power to call parliament was at the pleasure of the monarch (usually when he or she needed funds). The power of Parliament increased in stages over the succeeding centuries. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the English Bill of Rights of 1689 was enacted, which codified certain rights and increased the influence of Parliament. 26] The franchise was slowly increased and Parliament gradually gained more power until the monarch became largely a figurehead. [27] As the franchise was increased, it also was made more uniform, as many so-called rotten boroughs, with a handful of voters electing a Member of Parliament, were eliminated in the Reform Act of 1832. In North America, the English Puritans who migrated from 1620 established colonies in New England whose governance was democratic and which contributed to the democratic d evelopment of the United States. 28] [edit] Modern era [edit] 18th and 19th centuries The first nation in modern history to adopt a democratic constitution was the short-lived Corsican Republic in 1755. This Corsican Constitution was the first based on Enlightenment principles and even allowed for female suffrage, something that was granted in other democracies only by the 20th century. In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. [29] The establishment of universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy. Universal male suffrage was definitely established in France in March 1848 in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848. [30] In 1848, several revolutions broke out in Europe as rulers were confronted with popular demands for liberal constitutions and more democratic government. [31] Although not described as a democracy by the founding fathers, the United States founders also shared a determination to root the American experiment in the principle of natural freedom and equality. 32] The United States Constitution, adopted in 1788, provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties for some. In the colonial period before 1776, and for some time after, often only adult white male property owners could vote; enslaved Africans, most free black people and most women were not extended the franchise. On the American frontier, democracy became a way of life, with widespread social, economic and political equality. 33] However, slavery was a social and economic institution, particularly in eleven states in the American South, such that a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom and equality. In the 1860 United States Census the slave population in the United States had grown to four million,[34] and in Reconstruction after the Civil War (late 1860s) the newly freed slaves became citizens with (in the case of men) a nominal right to vote. Full enfranchisement of citizens was not secured until after the African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955–1968) gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. [35][36] [edit] 20th and 21st centuries The number of nations 1800–2003 scoring 8 or higher on Polity IV scale, another widely used measure of democracy. 20th century transitions to liberal democracy have come in successive â€Å"waves of democracy,† variously resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, religious and economic circumstances. World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires resulted in the creation of new nation-states from Europe, most of them at least nominally democratic. In the 1920s democracy flourished, but the Great Depression brought disenchantment, and most of the countries of Europe, Latin America, and Asia turned to strong-man rule or dictatorships. Fascism and dictatorships flourished in Nazi Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal, as well as nondemocratic regimes in the Baltics, the Balkans, Brazil, Cuba, China, and Japan, among others. 37] World War II brought a definitive reversal of this trend in western Europe. The democratization of the American, British, and French sectors of occupied Germany (disputed[38]), Austria, Italy, and the occupied Japan served as a model for the later theory of regime change. However, most of Eastern Europe, including the Soviet sector of Germany fell into the non-democratic Soviet bloc. The war was followed by decolonization, and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions. India emerged as the world’s largest democracy and continues to be so. 39] By 1960, the vast majority of country-states were nominally democracies, although most of the world’s populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, and other forms of subterfuge (particularly in Communist nations and the former colonies. ) A subsequent wave of democratization brought substantial gains toward true liberal democracy for many nations. Spain, Portugal (1974), and several of the military dictatorships in South America returned to civilian rule in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Argentina in 1983, Bolivia, Uruguay in 1984, Brazil in 1985, and Chile in the early 1990s). This was followed by nations in East and South Asia by the mid-to-late 1980s. Economic malaise in the 1980s, along with resentment of Soviet oppression, contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the democratization and liberalization of the former Eastern bloc countries. The most successful of the new democracies were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the European Union. Some researchers consider that contemporary Russia is not a true democracy and instead resembles a form of dictatorship. 40] The Economist’s Democracy Index as published in December 2011, with greener colours representing more democratic countries and clearly authoritarian countries in dark red. The liberal trend spread to some nations in Africa in the 1990s, most prominently in South Africa. Some recent examples of attempts of liberalization include the Indonesian Revolution of 1998, th e Bulldozer Revolution in Yugoslavia, the Rose Revolution in Georgia, the Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the Cedar Revolution in Lebanon, the Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, and the Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia. According to Freedom House, in 2007 there were 123 electoral democracies (up from 40 in 1972). [41] According to World Forum on Democracy, electoral democracies now represent 120 of the 192 existing countries and constitute 58. 2 percent of the world’s population. At the same time liberal democracies i. e. countries Freedom House regards as free and respectful of basic human rights and the rule of law are 85 in number and represent 38 percent of the global population. [42] In 2010 the United Nations declared September 15 the International Day of Democracy. 43] [edit] Countries The following countries are categorized by the Democracy Index 2011 as Full democracy:[44] 1. Norway? 2. Iceland? 3. Denmark? 4. Sweden? 5. New Zealand   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  | 6. Australia? 7. Switzerland? 8. Canada? 9. Finland? 10. Netherlands   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  | 11. Luxembourg   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 12. Ireland? 13. Austria? 14. Germany? 15. Malta| 16. Czech Republic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ? 17. Uruguay? 1 8. United Kingdom? 19. United States? 20. Costa Rica| 21. Japan? 22. South Korea? 23. Belgium? 24. Mauritius? 25. Spain| The Index assigns 53 countries to the next category, Flawed democracy: Argentina, Benin, Botswana, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cape Verde, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Estonia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guyana, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macedonia, Malaysia, Mali, India, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Namibia, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Zambia[44] [edit] Types See also: List of types of democracy Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others. [45][46] However, if any democracy is not structured so as to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the separation of powers in its own favor, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy. 47][48][49] World’s states colored by form of government as of 20111 Presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Semi-presidential republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary republics2|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Single-party republics|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Absolute monarchies|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Military dictatorships|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parliamentary constitutional monarchies in which the monarch personally exercises power|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Republics with an executive president dependent on a parliament|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Countries which do not fit any of the above systems| | This map was complied according to the Wikipedia list of countries by system of government. See there for sources. 2Several states constitutionally deemed to be multiparty republics are broadly described by outsiders as authoritarian states. This map presents only the de jure form of government, and not the de facto degree of democracy. The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system. [edit] Basic forms [edit] Direct Main article: Direct democracy Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. The supporters of direct democracy argue that democracy is more than merely a procedural issue. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to: Landsgemeinde of the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, example for direct democracy in Switzerland 1. Change constitutional laws, 2. Put forth initiatives, referendums and suggestions for laws, 3. Give binding orders to elective officials, such as revoking them before the end of their elected term, or initiating a lawsuit for breaking a campaign promise. Of the three measures mentioned, most operate in developed democracies today. This is part of a gradual shift towards direct democracies. Elements of direct democracy exist on a local level in many countries, though these systems often coexist with representative assemblies. Usually, this includes equal (and more or less direct) participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law. [14] [edit] Representative Main article: Representative democracy Representative democracy involves the selection of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also democratically elected then it is called a democratic republic. [50] The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a plurality of the votes. Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or constituency), or represent the entire electorate through proportional systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as referendums. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people’s interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgment as how best to do so. [edit] Parliamentary Main article: Parliamentary system Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by representatives as opposed to a ‘presidential rule’ wherein the President is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people. [51][52][53][54][55] Parliamentary systems have the right to dismiss a Prime Minister at any point in time that they feel he or she is not doing their job to the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a Vote of No Confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the Prime Minister from office by a majority support for his or her dismissal. 56] In some countries, the Prime Minister can also call an election whenever he or she so chooses, and typically the Prime Minister will hold an election when he or she knows that they are in good favor with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. [edit] Presidential Main article: Presidential system Presidential Democracy is a system where the public elects the president through free and fair elections. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. Elections typically have a fixed date and aren’t easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, the members of which are specifically appointed by the president himself. [56] The president cannot be easily removed from office by the legislature, but he or she cannot remove members of the legislative branch any more easily. This provides some measure of separation of powers. In consequence however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas. [56] A semi-presidential system is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country. 56] [edit] Constitutional Main article: Constitutional democracy A constitutional democracy is a representative democracy in which the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the rule of law, and usually moderated by a constitution that emphasizes the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and which places constraints on the leaders and on the extent to which the will of the majori ty can be exercised against the rights of minorities (see civil liberties). In a constitutional democracy, it is possible for some large-scale decisions to emerge from the many individual decisions that citizens are free to make. In other words, citizens can â€Å"vote with their feet† or â€Å"vote with their dollars†, resulting in significant informal government-by-the-masses that exercises many â€Å"powers† associated with formal government elsewhere. [edit] Hybrid Some modern democracies that are predominately representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed hybrid democracies[57] or semi-direct democracies. Examples include Switzerland and some U. S. states, where frequent use is made of referendums and initiatives. Although managed by a representative legislative body, Switzerland allows for initiatives and referendums at both the local and federal levels. In the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum. The populace has been conservative, approving only about 10% of the initiatives put before them; in addition, they have often opted for a version of the initiative rewritten by government. [citation needed] In the United States, no mechanisms of direct democracy exists at the federal level, but over half of the states and many localities provide for citizen-sponsored ballot initiatives (also called â€Å"ballot measures†, â€Å"ballot questions† or â€Å"propositions†), and the vast majority of states allow for referendums. Examples include the extensive use of referendums in the US state of California, which is a state that has more than 20 million voters. [58] In New England Town meetings are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local direct democracy and a state government which is representative. For example, most Vermont towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have an opportunity to speak and by heard on political matters. 59] [edit] Variants [edit] Republic Main article: Republicanism In contemporary usage, the term democracy refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative. [60] The term republic has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected head of state, such as a president, serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hered itary monarch as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed head of government such as a prime minister. 61] The Founding Fathers of the United States rarely praised and often criticized democracy, which in their time tended to specifically mean direct democracy, often without the protection of a Constitution enshrining basic rights; James Madison argued, especially in The Federalist No. 10, that what distinguished a democracy from a republic was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure. What was critical to American values, John Adams insisted,[62] was that the government be â€Å"bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend. † As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the U. S. constitution, a woman asked him â€Å"Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy? â€Å". He replied â€Å"A republic—if you can keep it. â€Å"[63] Queen Elizabeth II, a constitutional monarch. [edit] Constitutional monarchy Main article: constitutional monarchy Initially after the American and French revolutions, the question was open whether a democracy, in order to restrain unchecked majority rule, should have an elite upper chamber, the members perhaps appointed meritorious experts or having lifetime tenures, or should have a constitutional monarch with limited but real powers. Some countries (as Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, Thailand, Japan and Bhutan) turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs with limited or, often gradually, merely symbolic roles. Often the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in France, China, Russia, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy, Greece and Egypt). Many nations had elite upper houses of legislatures which often had lifetime tenure, but eventually these lost power (as in Britain) or else became elective and remained powerful (as in the United States). [edit] Socialist Socialist thought has several different views on democracy. Social democracy, democratic socialism, and the dictatorship of the proletariat (usually exercised through Soviet democracy) are some examples. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of participatory democracy and workplace democracy combined with a representative democracy. Within Marxist orthodoxy there is a hostility to what is commonly called â€Å"liberal democracy†, which they simply refer to as parliamentary democracy because of its often centralized nature. Because of their desire to eliminate the political elitism they see in capitalism, Marxists, Leninists and Trotskyists believe in direct democracy implemented through a system of communes (which are sometimes called soviets). This system ultimately manifests itself as council democracy and begins with workplace democracy. (See Democracy in Marxism) Democracy cannot consist solely of elections that are nearly always fictitious and managed by rich landowners and professional politicians. —Che Guevara,  Speech, Uruguay, 1961[64] [edit] Anarchist Anarchists are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a majority-rule is tyrannic or not. The only form of democracy considered acceptable to many anarchists is direct democracy. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognized that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous. [65] However, anarcho-communist Murray Bookchin criticized individualist anarchists for opposing democracy,[66] and says â€Å"majority rule† is consistent with anarchism. [67] Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt in favour of a non-majoritarian form of consensus democracy, similar to Proudhon’s position on direct democracy. 68] Henry David Thoreau, who did not self-identify as an anarchist but argued for â€Å"a better government†[69] and is cited as an inspiration by some anarchists, argued that people should not be in the position of ruling others or being ruled when there is no consent. [edit] Demarchy Main article: Demarchy Sometimes called â€Å"democracy without elections†, demarchy uses sortition to choose decision makers via a random process. The intention is that those chosen will be representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large, and be more fair and impartial than an elected official. The technique was in widespread use in Athenian Democracy and is still used in modern jury selection. [edit] Consensus Main article: Consensus democracy Consensus democracy requires varying degrees of consensus rather than just a mere democratic majority. It typically attempts to protect minority rights from domination by majority rule. [edit] Supranational Qualified majority voting is designed by the Treaty of Rome to be the principal method of reaching decisions in the European Council of Ministers. This system allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. This might be seen as a form of representative democracy, but representatives to the Council might be appointed rather than directly elected. Some might consider the â€Å"individuals† being democratically represented to be states rather than people, as with many others. European Parliament members are democratically directly elected on the basis of universal suffrage, may be seen as an example of a supranational democratic institution. [edit] Non-governmental Aside from the public sphere, similar democratic principles and mechanisms of voting and representation have been used to govern other kinds of communities and organizations. Many non-governmental organizations decide policy and leadership by voting. Most trade unions and cooperatives are governed by democratic elections. Corporations are controlled by shareholders on the principle of one share, one vote. [edit] Theory A marble statue of Aristotle. [edit] Aristotle Aristotle contrasted rule by the many (democracy/polity), with rule by the few (oligarchy/aristocracy), and with rule by a single person (tyranny or today autocracy/monarchy). He also thought that there was a good and a bad variant of each system (he considered democracy to be the degenerate counterpart to polity). 70][71] For Aristotle the underlying principle of democracy is freedom, since only in a democracy the citizens can have a share in freedom. In essence, he argues that this is what every democracy should make its aim. There are two main aspects of freedom: being ruled and ruling in turn, since everyone is equal according to number, not merit, and to be able to live as one pleases. But one factor of liberty is to govern and be governed in turn; for the popular principle of justice is to have equality according to number, not worth, †¦. And one is for a man to live as he likes; for they say that this is the function of liberty, inasmuch as to live not as one likes is the life of a man that is a slave. —Aristotle,  Politics 1317b (Book 6, Part II) [edit] Rationale Among modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of the fundamental rationale for democracy: aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy, and radical democracy. [72] [edit] Aggregative The theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit citizens’ preferences and aggregate them together to determine what social policies society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented. Different variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not â€Å"rule† because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. [73] Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner. According to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies. Governments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter– with half to his left and the other half to his right. This is not actually a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy. [74] Robert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. [75] Some[who? ] see a problem with the wealthy having more influence and therefore argue for reforms like campaign finance reform. Some[who? ] may see it as a problem that only voters decide policy, as opposed to a majority rule of the entire population. This can be used as an argument for making political participation mandatory, like compulsory voting or for making it more patient (non-compulsory) by simply refusing power to the government until the full majority feels inclined to speak their minds. [edit] Deliberative Deliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregration of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. [76][77][78] If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule. [edit] Radical Radical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy’s role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision making processes. [edit] Ideal forms [edit] Inclusive Main article: Inclusive Democracy Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for direct democracy in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, economic democracy in a stateless, moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i. . self-management in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher Takis Fotopoulos in â€Å"Towards An Inclusive Democracy† and was further developed in the journal Democracy Nature and its successor The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. The basic unit of decision making in an inclusive demo cracy is the demotic assembly, i. e. he assembly of demos, the citizen body in a given geographical area which may encompass a town and the surrounding villages, or even neighbourhoods of large cities. An inclusive democracy today can only take the form of a confederal democracy that is based on a network of administrative councils whose members or delegates are elected from popular face-to-face democratic assemblies in the various demoi. Thus, their role is purely administrative and practical, not one of policy-making like that of representatives in representative democracy. The citizen body is advised by experts but it is the citizen body which functions as the ultimate decision-taker . Authority can be delegated to a segment of the citizen body to carry out specific duties, for example to serve as members of popular courts, or of regional and confederal councils. Such delegation is made, in principle, by lot, on a rotation basis, and is always recallable by the citizen body. Delegates to regional and confederal bodies should have specific mandates. [edit] How to cite Cultural Democracy, Essay examples